Posted by: Life Skills Sankar
Source:
Sankara Pitchaiah Podila (2018) Why Humans Need To Lead Good Life?, International Journal of Recent Scientific Research, Vol. 9, Issue,
9(D), pp. 28925-28931 (Thomson Reuters Researcher ID: K-7356-2016).
Sankara Pitchaiah Podila (2019) Knowing Self-A
Solution For Personal And Global Challenges, International
Journal of Recent Scientific Research, Vol. 10, Issue, 02(C), pp. 30889-30898.
Introduction
Happiness depends on our health (physical and
mental) and the health on emotions. Society with good humans drive toward
healthy and peaceful society and unrest in the society question the purpose of
life.
Systematic process has been operating in human body among senses, mind,
personality, brain, emotions, nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters and
health. Our senses supply input from our environment to the mind (Figure 1). The input stimulates the mind and the mind
processes it depending on type of personality and produces a feeling. Based on
the type of feeling, corresponding electrical signals generate from the human
brain and these brain waves cause an emotion. If it is a positive emotion, it
generates health promoting hormones/neurotransmitters in the nervous system and
drive away the health problems or cure the problems already attacked,. In case
if it is a negative emotion, it causes to release health deteriorating
hormones/neurotransmitters and cause health problems or aggravate, if suffering
from health problems. Each step of the proposed model is briefly presented
here.
Human
Senses
The five human senses are the five
main tools that humans use to get information from the environment and the
information stimulates our mind.
Stimulus
Human
senses are the messengers of information from the environment. The information
so received is the stimulus for our mind. At a time one sense may feed the
information or more than one or even all senses feed the information based on
the incident. For ex., there is scenery in front of us, only the eyes act. When
some sound also associated with it both eyes and ears act in sending the
information.
Mind
Mind occupies the central
point in human life and is behind all the body matters. It may drive the life
towards happy and peaceful end or misery. The mind is a set of cognitive faculties including consciousness, perception, thinking, judgment, language and memory. It is usually defined as
the faculty of an entity's thoughts and consciousness.
It holds the power of imagination, recognition, and appreciation, and is
responsible for processing feelings and emotions, result attitudes and actions.
Stimulus received by mind will be processed further by personality.
Fig.1 Relation between Emotions and Health
Personality
Personality is defined as the
characteristic set of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve
from biological and environmental factors (Philip and Gerald, 2009). While there is no
generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on
motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment (Sadock et
al., 2017). Most of the personality theories view personality as
relatively stable. 16 personality types are shown in table 1.
Table 1 Types of Personality (Source: https://www.personalitypage.com)
S. No
|
Type of Personality
|
Characteristics
|
S.No
|
Type of Personality
|
Characteristics
|
1.
|
ISTJ
|
The Duty Fulfiller
|
9.
|
ESTP
|
The Doer
|
2.
|
ISTP
|
The Mechanic
|
10.
|
ESTJ
|
The Guardian
|
3.
|
ISFJ
|
The Nurturer
|
11.
|
ESFP
|
The Performer
|
4.
|
ISFP
|
The Artist
|
12.
|
ESFJ
|
The Caregiver
|
5.
|
INFJ
|
The Protector
|
13.
|
ENFP
|
The Inspirer
|
6.
|
INFP
|
The Idealist
|
14.
|
ENFJ
|
The Giver
|
7.
|
INTJ
|
The Scientist
|
15.
|
ENTP
|
The Visionary
|
8.
|
INTP
|
The Thinker
|
16.
|
ENTJ
|
The Executive
|
Different personalities
differently perceived the same stimulus and act differently. For ex., somebody
met with an accident, many peoplejust watch, considerable number gather and
just discuss, very few immediately react and try to help. The way of perception
generates corresponding feeling,
Feeling
Feeling is an emotional state or reaction. The feeling
causes to form an emotion through brain waves.
Brain waves
Brainwaves
are produced by synchronised electrical pulses from masses of neurons
communicating with each other. Our brainwaves (Table 2) change according to
what we are
Table 2. Brain waves
Types/
Frequency
|
Characteristics
|
Infra-Low
<.5HZ
|
Behind our higher brain functions, Play a major role
in brain timing and network function.
|
Delta (δ)
0.5-3Hz
|
Slow and loud, Deepest meditation and dreamless
sleep, Source of empathy, Healing and regeneration.
|
Theta(θ)
3-8Hz
|
Most often in sleep, Dominant in deep meditation,
Gateway for learning, memory, and intuition, Senses withdrawn from the
external world, Where we hold our ‘stuff’, our fears, troubled history and
nightmares.
|
Alpha (α)
8-12Hz
|
Dominant during quietly flowing thoughts, Resting of
state for the brain, Aid overall mental coordination, calmness, alertness,
mind/body integration and learning.
|
Beta (β)
12-27Hz
|
Present when we are alert, attentive, engaged in
problem solving, judgment, decision making, or focused mental activity,
Highly complex thought, integrating new experiences, high anxiety, or
excitement, Can translate into stress, anxiety and restlessness.
|
Gamma(γ)
>27Hz
|
The fastest of brain waves and relate to
simultaneous processing of information from different brain areas,
Pass information rapidly and quietly, The mind has
to be quiet to access gamma and It was highly active when in states of
universal love, altruism, and the ‘higher virtues’.
|
doing and feeling. The type of brainwave is defined by the
frequency at which it is pulsing. The particular rate of pulsation determines
the state of individual mind. There are often several patterns interacting at
one time. Brains operate much like a resonance chamber, oscillating pulses and
patterns of neural excitations ripple through our brains much like never-ending
waves in a dynamic pond of subtle electrical matter. Brainwave entrainment and
binaural beats occur naturally in our environment (Ved Vyas, 2014).
When slower brainwaves are
dominant we feel tired, slow, sluggish, or dreamy. The higher frequencies
are dominant when we feel wired, or hyper-alert. When our brainwaves
are out of balance, there will be corresponding problems in our emotional
or neuro-physical health.
Over-arousal in certain
brain areas is linked with anxiety disorders, sleep problems, nightmares,
hyper-vigilance, impulsive behaviour, anger/aggression, agitated depression,
chronic nerve pain and spasticity. Under-arousal in certain brain areas leads
to some types of depression, attention deficit, chronic pain and insomnia. A
combination of under-arousal and over-arousal is seen in cases of anxiety,
depression and ADHD (https://brainworksneurotherapy.com).
Lee and Hsieh (2014) did a study to classify different emotional states
by means of Electro encephalogram (EEG)-based functional connectivity patterns.
The results indicated that the EEG-based functional connectivity change was
significantly different among emotional states.
Du, Ruoyu, et al., (2014)
revealed that the basic waves of Alpha, Beta and Gamma changed
significantly at limited location due to changed emotional status. Ahmed and
kareem (2013) analysed brain waves that associated with the internal emotion of
human. And proved that the velocity of
sad emotion is faster than happy emotion.
Fu-Chien Kao et al., (2015) have investigated
difference of human brain wave of eight types of positive and negative emotions
i.e., Joyful, Angry, Protected, Sad, Surprised, Fear, Satisfied and
Unconcerned. The study shows eight different positive and negative emotions can
be effectively identified by the proposed emotional brainwave digital encoding
technique and the technique is promising for developing future emotion
identification technique.
Although inputs originating from many different bodily organs and
systems are involved in the processes that ultimately determine emotional
experience, it is now abundantly clear that the heart plays a particularly
important role. The heart is the primary and most consistent source of dynamic
rhythmic patterns in the body. Furthermore, the afferent networks connecting
the heart and cardiovascular system with the brain are far more extensive than
are the afferent systems associated with other major organs (Cameron,
2002). The heart not only pumps blood,
but also continually transmits dynamic patterns of neurological, hormonal,
pressure, and electromagnetic information to the brain and throughout the body.
All these studies supporting the direct role
of heart and brain waves behind the origin of emotions.
Emotions
Emotion is an agitated or excited state of our mind and body. It is any conscious experience characterized by
intense mental activity and a certain degree of pleasure or displeasure. The physiology of emotion is closely
linked to arousal of the nervous system.
According to Fu-chien Kao et al., (2015)
emotion is the generic term for various subjective cognitive experiences and a
psychological and physiological synthesized state generates under a variety of
perceptions, thoughts, and behaviours. From the component-processing model,
emotion consist five basic elements that must be coordinated in a short time,
synchronous manner The five basic
elements are cognitive assessment, physical reactions, feelings, tendencies,
expression, and action (Scherer,
2005).
Emotions are classified into two types: Positive and negative. The most
common Positive and negative emotions are included in table 3.
Table
3 The most common Positive and Negative emotions
Positive emotions
|
Negative emotions
|
Love
|
Anger
|
Kindness
|
Sadness
|
Gratitude
|
Jealous
|
Hope
|
Hatred
|
Joy
|
Grief
|
Appreciation
|
Frustration
|
Pride
|
Depression
|
Amusement
|
Isolation
|
Serenity
|
Humiliation
|
Awe
|
Worthlessness
|
Inspiration
|
Anxiety
|
Interest
|
Conflict
|
Every emotion stimulates a
chemical response in your body. Positive emotions cause the production of “feel
good” hormones serotonin and dopamine
(http://theutopianlife.com/2014). Negative emotions cause the production
of “stress” hormones cortisol and adrenaline.
Positive Emotions
Raposa et al., (2015) study indicated that helping
others boosted participants’ daily well-being. A greater number of helping
behaviors was associated with higher levels of daily positive emotion and better
overall mental health. Participants’ helping behavior also influenced how they
responded to stress. People who reported lower-than-usual helping behavior
reported lower positive emotion and higher negative emotion in response to high
daily stress.
Sandra Manninen et al., (2017) found that Social laughter led to pleasurable
feelings and significantly increased release of endorphins and other opioid
peptides in the brain areas controlling arousal and emotions. The more opioid
receptors the participants had in their brain, the more they laughed during the
experiment.
Dunbar et al., (2011) did a series of six experiments and
the results showed that laughing increased pain resistance, whereas simple good
feeling in a group setting did not. From these studies, one can understand that
the positive emotions promote sound health.
Negative Emotions
The negative emotions may come from many issues and be different for
each person. Conflicts over beliefs, racism, financial worry, physical
ailments, poor living conditions, and toxic relationships are just a few examples of where
negative emotions might originate. We are surrounded by so many levels of
negativity that even the most positive people may struggle with maintaining
their happiness and optimism. Negative emotions take
root in our body and cells.
For ex., Anger is a primary human emotion we all experience from time to
time. We feel anger when we feel threatened due to physical conflict,
injustice, humiliation or betrayal. Hendricks
et al., (2013) presented the effects of anger on the brain and body. The
average adult experiences anger about once a day and becomes annoyed or peeved
about three times a day (Mills, 2005).
The brain processes all emotional
stress. When the brain senses threat or harm, millions of nerve fibers within
our brain release chemicals throughout the body to every organ. When a person
experiences anger the brain causes the body to release stress hormones,
adrenaline and noradrenalin. These chemicasl help the body to control the heart
rate and blood pressure. The release of these chemical also helps regulate the
pancreas which controls the sugar balance in our blood (Boerma, 2007).
Anger also causes the release of the stress hormone, cortisol. Release
of this hormone gives the body bursts of energy. However, too much of this
hormone can cause a multitude of negative effects on the body. Too much
cortisol in the body can cause an imbalance in blood sugar; it can suppress
thyroid function, and decrease bone density. This hormonal imbalance also
impacts the body’s immune system. Research shows that chronic-angry people
suffer more frequent colds, flu’s infections, asthma, skin disease flare-ups
and arthritis, as compared to on-chronic-angry people (Boerma, 2007).
Hill et al. (2006) warn of the act that there are proofs
that establish a positive association between negative emotions and conditions
such as atherosclerosis or coronary heart disease (CHD). Anger can have a
direct impact upon cardiovascular diseases through the HPA axis and the
sympathetic nervous system, their activation leading to an excessive liberation
of corticosteroids and catecholamine. The liberation of such stress hormones
can produce an avalanche of events, including hemodynamic and metabolic
modifications, vascular problems, and disorders of the cardiac rhythm. Anger
can also contribute to the adoption of an unhealthy lifestyle (smoking,
consumption of high caloric aliments, alcohol and caffeine consumption).
Women in strained relationships are more likely to
be overweight, have high blood pressure and suffer from the signs of
"metabolic syndrome" – a range of risk factors that can lead to heart
disease, stroke and diabetes. In other words, those who reported experiencing
more conflict, hostility and disagreement with their spouses would be more
depressed, which in turn would be associated with a higher risk of heart
disease due to metabolic syndrome. (https://www.independent.co.uk). Annapurna et al., (2015) and Sankara Pitchiah
(2013, 2014) also reported the harmful effects of negative emotions on human
health.
So we can understand that
the negative emotions deteriorate human health and shall try to inculcate the
positive emotions for sound health.
Emotions and heart rate
Recent years have seen the emergence of a new understanding of how
the brain functions
and how the heart and brain interact in a dynamic and complex
relationship. Psychologists once maintained that emotions were purely mental
expressions generated by the brain alone. We now know that emotions have as
much to do with the body as they do with the brain. A current view widely held
among neuroscientists and psychophysiologists
is that the emergence of emotional experience results from the ongoing
interactions between the brain, the body, and the external environment
(Damasio, 2003; Pribram & Melges, 1969).
Mc Craty and Rees (2009) had examined the natural fluctuations in
heart rate, known as heart rate variability (HRV) or heart rhythms (See Sankara Pitchaiah, 2018, for figures). These
beat-to-beat changes in heart rate are generated largely by the interaction
between the heart and brain via the neural signals flowing through the afferent
(ascending) and efferent (descending) pathways of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). HRV is thus
considered a measure of neurocardiac function that reflects heart–brain
interactions and ANS dynamics.
Emotions and heart rhythm patterns ((McCraty and Rees, 2009; McCraty and
Zayas, 2014)
Utilizing HRV analysis, the author demonstrated that distinct
heart rhythm patterns characterize different emotional states. In general,
emotional stress—including emotions such as anger, frustration, and
anxiety—leads to heart rhythm patterns that appear incoherent. In contrast, sustained positive
emotions, such as appreciation, compassion, and love, generate a smooth,
ordered, sine wave-like pattern in the heart’s rhythms. This
reflects increased synchronization in higher-level brain systems and in the
activity occurring in the two branches of the ANS as well as a shift in
autonomic balance toward increased parasympathetic activity.
Although heart rate and the amount of HRV can covary with
emotional changes, it is found that it
is the pattern of the
heart’s rhythm that is primarily reflective of the emotional state (McCratyet
al., 2005). McCraty and Rees
(2009) observed that when positive states are maintained, through the
intentional generation of positive emotions, coherent heart rhythm patterns can
be sustained for longer periods, which leads to increased synchronization and
entrainment between the heart’s rhythm and the activity of multiple bodily
systems. Such synchronization is observed between heart rhythms, respiratory
rhythms, and blood pressure oscillations.
The coherent state is characterized by increased synchronization
between the activity of the heart and brain. Specifically, it is found that the
brain’s alpha and beta rhythms, as well as lower frequency brain activity,
exhibit increased synchronization with the cardiac cycle during this mode
(McCraty & Childre, 2004). Psychologically, the coherence mode is
associated with a calm, emotionally-balanced, yet alert and responsive state
that is conducive to improved cognitive and task performance, including
problem- solving, decision-making, long-term memory, and activities requiring
perceptual acuity—attentional focus, coordination, and discrimination (McCraty
et al., 2005). These studies are highlighting the necessity to lead our life
with positive emotions for sound health.
Hormones/Neurotransmitters
The Positive/Negative emotions release different
hormones/neruotransmitters.
Hormones
A hormone is
any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones are used
to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioural activities,
such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood. (Wikipedia), Ex., Estrogen, Progesterone,
Testosterone.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that
acts as a mediator for the transmission of nerve impulse from one neuron to
other neuron through a synapse (Sembulingam and Sembulingam, 2013).
Neurotransmitters are used to relay information about environment to the brain,
to analyze the information and to set in motion appropriate bodily responses
(Clark and Grunstein, 2000). Approximately 70 neurotransmitters regulate human
body functioning and contribute to normal functioning (www.hydeparkcps.org).
All neurotransmitters play some role in behaviour. The neurotransmitters most
commonly implicated in behavior modulation are the small molecular transmitters
– acetyl choline, norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin (Clark and Grunstein,
2000).
Interactions between neurotransmitters, hormones,
and the brain chemicals have a profound influence on overall health and
well-being. When our concentration and focus is good, we feel more directed,
motivated, and vibrant. Unfortunately, if neurotransmitter levels are
inadequate these energizing and motivating signals are absent and we feel more
stressed, sluggish, and out of control.
Causes
for neurotransmitter dysfunction
Prolonged periods of stress can deplete
neurotransmitters levels. Our fast paced, fast food society greatly contributes
to these imbalances. Stress raises free radicals, insulin, and blood pressure
which all damage neurons. Our body has a checks and balances system to
make sure we do not go too far in one direction. When we are stressed and
our catecholamines rise we will release serotonin and GABA to counteract
it. If we are constantly under stress and releasing serotonin and GABA we
will desensitize to them and they will become depleted. This leaves the
catecholamines to run rampant. Excess amounts of catecholamines in our
system lead to depression, anxiety, and insomnia. Poor sleep, illness,
and excessive heat will also deplete serotonin as does cortisol (https://www.hawkinspsychiatry.com).
Everyone experiences small
frustration (negative emotion) during daily life that usually lasts for 24
hours or less. This is known as “acute” stress. In this case, negative emotions
may ruin our day but otherwise have little to no effect on our quality of life.
If it doesn’t ease after several days or gradually worsens, it is known as
“chronic” stress. In such a case they can have devastating and irreparable
effects to your physical health (citation needed). Chronic stress keeps your
system unnaturally flooded with cortisol and adrenaline and results in
inflammation. we may not know how deeply the stress affects us until we start
to experience the physical signs that eventually manifest.
The cortisol, interfere with learning
and memory, lower
immune function and bone density, increase weight gain, blood pressure,
cholesterol, heart disease etc. Cortisol
actually damages serotonin receptor sites.
References
Ahmed, M and Abdul
kareem (2013) Brain waves classification toward human emotion based on EEG
signal. Master’s thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Computing.
Annapurna Uppala, Masthanamma SK, V.Naga Swapna, Sai
Lakshmi G and Sankara Pitchaiah P (2015) Impact of Neurotransmitters on Health
Through Emotions, International
Journal of Recent Scientific Research, Vol. 6, Issue, 10, pp. 6632-6636.
Boerma, C. (2007) Physiology
of anger. Retrieved from http://healthmad.com/mental-health/physiology-of-anger/.
Cameron,
O. G. (2002) Visceral sensory
neuroscience: Interoception. New York: Oxford University Press.
Damasio,
A. (2003) Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain.
Orlando: Harcourt.
Du, Ruoyu, Lee, Hyo Jong (2014) Brain Wave Patterns Under
Emotional Affect, Advanced Science,
Engineering and Medicine, Volume 6, Number 1, January 2014, pp. 62-66(5)
American Scientific Publishers.
, , , , , , ,, , Social laughter is correlated with
an elevated pain threshold. Proc. R. Soc. B
279, 1161–1167.
Fu-Chien
Kao, Shinping R. Wang, Yu-Jung Chang(2015) Brainwaves Analysis of Positive and Negative Emotions, Wseas
Transactions On Information Science and Applications, Volume 12.
Hill, G.S. Janice E. Williams , Daniel E.
Ford, Hsin-Chieh Yeh , Catherine Paton Sanford , F. Javier Nietod , Frederick
L. Brancati (2006) Anger temperament is modestly
associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, The atheroslcerosis risk
in communities study. Psychoneuroendocrinology,
31(3):325–332.
Hendricks Lavelle,
Sam Bore, Dean Aslinia, And Guy Morriss (2013) The Effects of Anger on The Brain And Body, National Forum Journal
Of Counseling And Addiction Volume 2, Number 1, pp 1-12.
Lee Y-Y, Hsieh S (2014) Classifying Different Emotional
States by Means of EEG-Based Functional Connectivity Patterns. PLoS ONE 9(4):
e95415. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095415.
McCraty,
R., Atkinson, M., Tomasino, D., & Bradley, R. T. (2005) The coherent heart: Heart-brain
interactions, psychophysiological coherence, and the emergence of system-wide
order. Boulder Creek, CA: HeartMath Research Center, Institute of
HeartMath, Publication No. 05-022.
McCraty,
R., & Childre, D. (2004). The grateful heart: The psychophysiology of
appreciation. In R. A. Emmons & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), The psychology of gratitude (pp.
230-255). New York: Oxford University Press.
McCraty, R.& Rees, R.A. Ph.D. (2011) The Central
Role of the Heart in generating and sustaining positive emotions, Oxford
handbook of positive Positive Psychology, Ed., Lopez, S. and Snyder, C.R. 744P.
McCraty,
R and Maria Zayas, A. (2014) Cardiaccoherence,self-regulation,autonomicstability,
andpsychosocialwell-being, Hypothesis
And theory article published: doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01090.
Mills, H. (2005) Health
cost of anger. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=5809&cn=116.
Philip J. Corr,
Matthews, Gerald (2009) The Cambridge handbook of personality psychology (1.
publ.ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Pribram,
K. H., & Melges, F. T. (1969) Psychophysiological basis of emotion. In P.
J. Vinken & G. W. Bruyn (Eds.), Handbook
of clinical neurology (Vol. 3, pp. 316-341). Amsterdam: North-Holland
Publishing Company.
Raposa Elizabeth B., Holly B. Laws, and Emily B. Ansell,(
2015) Prosocial Behavior Mitigates the Negative Effects of Stress in Everyday
Life, Clinical Psychological Science 1–8,
DOI: 10.1177/2167702615611073.
Sadock, Benjamin; Sadock, Virginia;
Ruiz, Pedro (2017). Kaplan and
Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. Wolters Kluwer. ISBN 9781451100471.
Sandra Manninen , Lauri Tuominen , Robin Dunbar, Tomi
Karjalainen , Jussi Hirvonen, Eveliina Arponen , Riitta Hari, Iiro P. Jääskeläinen,
Mikko Sams and Lauri Nummenmaa, Social Laughter Triggers Endogenous Opioid
Release in Humans, J. Neurosci ; 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0688-16.2017.
Sankara Pitchaiah P, (2013) Vijetha published by Acharya
Nagarjuna University, Guntur, p 103.
Sankara Pitchaiah P, (2014) Win your life published by
Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur p 86.
Scherer, K.R., What are emotions? And how can they be
measured?, Social Science Information,
2005, 44: 693–727.
Sembulingam
K, and Sembulingam P , Neurotransmitters, Essentials of medical
physiology, Sixth edition, Jaypee
Brothers, New Delhi, 2013, Pg.No:787-791.
Taneri Pervin Oya (2016) Reasons for the Deterioration of Moral
Values: Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis, Wei International Academic Conference
Proceedings, Boston, USA, pp 242-252.
The Patient Facto r(2017) Canadian
Health Care Information, WHO Ranking of the World Health Systems.
Ved Vyas R. A (2014), The study About Brain Wave Extreme Low frequency and Works,
International medical Association
Expert talk & Conference, India, Paper Id: 1312-0051-0285.
William R. Clark, Michael Grunstein (2000) Are We
Hardwired?: The Role of Genes in Human
Behavior, Oxford University Press, USA.
Behavior, Oxford University Press, USA.
www.hydeparkcps.org/lecture2_Effects
of neuro transmission on human behavior.
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2018-09-25/secretary-generals-address-general-assembly-delivered-trilingual in Generating and Sustaining
Positive Emotions, The Institute of HeartMath, From
the Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology 2009.
World Happiness Report, (2018)
http://worldhappiness.report/ed/2018/
No comments:
Post a Comment